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Toy
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/wiki/File:King_Scooter,_STS_Japan_1955_(32799156708).jpgA toy motor scooter from 1955
A toy or plaything is an object that is used primarily to provide [entertainment](/wiki/Entertainment). Simple examples include [toy blocks](/wiki/Toy_block), [board games](/wiki/Board_game), and [dolls](/wiki/Doll). Toys are often designed for use by children, although many are designed specifically for adults and pets. Toys can provide utilitarian benefits, including physical exercise, cultural awareness, or academic education. Additionally, utilitarian objects, especially those which are no longer needed for their original purpose, can be used as toys. Examples include children building a fort with empty cereal boxes and tissue paper spools, or a toddler playing with a broken TV remote. The term "toy" can also be used to refer to utilitarian objects purchased for enjoyment rather than need, or for expensive necessities for which a large fraction of the cost represents its ability to provide enjoyment to the owner, such as luxury cars, high-end motorcycles, gaming computers, and flagship smartphones.

Playing with toys can be an enjoyable way of training young children for life experiences. Various materials, such as wood, clay, paper, and plastic, are used to make toys. Newer forms of toys include [interactive digital entertainment](/wiki/Video_game) and [smart toys](/wiki/Smart_toy). Some toys are produced primarily as collector's items and are intended for display only.

The origin of toys is [prehistoric](/wiki/Prehistoric); dolls representing infants, animals, and soldiers, as well as representations of tools used by adults, are readily found at archaeological sites. The origin of the word "toy" is unknown, but it is believed that it was first used in the 14th century. Toys are mainly made for children.[[1]](#cite_note-etymonline-1) The oldest known doll toy is thought to be 4,000 years old.[[2]](#cite_note-2)

Playing with toys is an important part of aging. Research in developmental psychology shows that play with toys supports early cognitive development, including problem-solving, memory, symbolic thinking, and understanding cause and effect. Play activities also contribute to social learning and emotional regulation in young children.[[3]](#cite_note-3)[[4]](#cite_note-4). Adults, on occasion, use toys to form and strengthen social bonds, teach, help in therapy, and to remember and reinforce lessons from their youth. Some adults — particularly the elderly or those recovering from trauma or cognitive decline — toys and structured play have been used in therapy and recreation to support memory, emotional well-being, social bonds, and cognitive function.[[5]](#cite_note-5)[[6]](#cite_note-6)

A toymaker is a person or company that designs, produces, or manufactures toys.

## History

### Antiquity

/wiki/File:Little_horse_on_wheels_(Ancient_greek_child%27s_Toy).jpgLittle horse on wheels, [Ancient Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greece) children's toy. From a tomb dating 950–900 BCE, [Kerameikos](/wiki/Kerameikos) Archaeological Museum, Athens
Toys and [games](/wiki/Game) have been retrieved from the sites of ancient civilizations, and have been mentioned in ancient literature. Toys excavated from the [Indus Valley Civilization](/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization) (3010–1500 BCE) include small carts, whistles shaped like birds, and toy monkeys that could slide down a string.[[7]](#cite_note-7)[[8]](#cite_note-8) One of the earliest examples of children's toys is a set of three stone balls found in the tomb of a four-year-old girl at Xi'an [Banpo](/wiki/Banpo) Neolithic site.[[9]](#cite_note-GuoEymanSun3-9)

The earliest toys were made from natural materials, such as rocks, sticks, and [clay](/wiki/Clay). Thousands of years ago, [Egyptian](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt) children played with [dolls](/wiki/Doll) that had wigs and movable limbs, which were made from stone, pottery, and wood.[[10]](#cite_note-Maspero-10) However, evidence of toys in ancient Egypt is exceptionally difficult to identify with certainty in the archaeological record. Small figurines and models found in tombs are usually interpreted as ritual objects; those from settlement sites are more easily labelled as toys. These include spinning tops, balls of spring, and wooden models of animals with movable parts.[[11]](#cite_note-11)

In [ancient Greece](/wiki/Ancient_Greece) and [ancient Rome](/wiki/Ancient_Rome), children played with dolls made of [wax](/wiki/Wax) or [terracotta](/wiki/Terracotta): sticks, [bows and arrows](/wiki/Bow_and_arrow), and [yo-yos](/wiki/Yo-yo). When Greek children, especially girls, came of age, it was customary for them to sacrifice the toys of their childhood to the [gods](/wiki/Greek_mythology). On the eve of their wedding, young girls around fourteen would offer their dolls in a temple as a [rite of passage](/wiki/Rite_of_passage) into adulthood.[[12]](#cite_note-Powell-12)[[13]](#cite_note-Oliver-13)

The oldest known put-together [mechanical puzzle](/wiki/Mechanical_puzzle), the [Ostomachion](/wiki/Ostomachion) or loculus of Archimedes, also comes from ancient Greece and appeared in the 3rd century BCE.[[14]](#cite_note-14) The game consisted of a square divided into 14 parts, and the aim was to create different shapes from the pieces. In [Iran](/wiki/Iran), "puzzle-locks" were made as early as the 17th century (CE).[[15]](#cite_note-15)

### Enlightenment Era

Toys became more widespread with changing Western attitudes towards children and childhood brought about by the [Enlightenment](/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment). Previously, children had often been thought of as small adults, who were expected to work in order to produce the goods that the family needed to survive. As children's culture scholar Stephen Kline has argued, [Medieval](/wiki/Middle_Ages) children were "more fully integrated into the daily flux of making and consuming, of getting along. They had no autonomy, separate statuses, privileges, special rights, or forms of social comportment that were entirely their own."[[16]](#cite_note-16)

/wiki/File:Reif_Spielzeug.jpgA boy with a [hoop](/wiki/Hoop_rolling). Hoops have long been a popular toy across a variety of cultures.
As these ideas began changing during the Enlightenment Era, blowing bubbles from leftover washing up soap became a popular pastime, as shown in the painting The Soap Bubble (1739) by [Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Sim%C3%A9on_Chardin), and other popular toys included [hoops](/wiki/Hoop_rolling), [toy wagons](/wiki/Toy_wagon), [kites](/wiki/Kite), [spinning wheels](/wiki/Spinning_wheel) and [puppets](/wiki/Puppet). Many [board games](/wiki/Board_game) were produced by [John Jefferys](/wiki/John_Jefferys) in the 1750s, including A Journey Through Europe.[[17]](#cite_note-17) The game was very similar to modern board games; players moved along a track with the throw of a [die](/wiki/Dice) (a [teetotum](/wiki/Teetotum) was actually used) and landing on different spaces would either help or hinder the player.[[18]](#cite_note-everydaytoys-18)

In the nineteenth century, Western values prioritized toys with an educational purpose, such as puzzles, books, cards, and board games. Religion-themed toys were also popular, including a model [Noah's Ark](/wiki/Noah%27s_Ark) with miniature animals and objects from other [Bible](/wiki/Bible) scenes. With growing prosperity among the [middle class](/wiki/Middle_class), children had more [leisure](/wiki/Leisure) time on their hands, which led to the application of industrial methods to the manufacture of toys.[[18]](#cite_note-everydaytoys-18)

More complex mechanical and [optical](/wiki/Optics)-based toys were also invented during the nineteenth century. [Carpenter and Westley](/wiki/Carpenter_and_Westley) began to mass-produce the [kaleidoscope](/wiki/Kaleidoscope), invented by Sir [David Brewster](/wiki/David_Brewster) in 1817, and had sold over 200,000 items within three months in London and Paris. The company was also able to mass-produce [magic lanterns](/wiki/Magic_lantern) for use in [phantasmagoria](/wiki/Phantasmagoria) and galanty shows, by developing a method of [mass production](/wiki/Mass_production) using a copper plate printing process. Popular imagery on the lanterns included [royalty](/wiki/Royal_family), [flora](/wiki/Flora), and [fauna](/wiki/Fauna), and geographical/man-made structures from around the world.[[19]](#cite_note-Heard-19) The modern [zoetrope](/wiki/Zoetrope) was invented in 1833 by British mathematician [William George Horner](/wiki/William_George_Horner) and was popularized in the 1860s.[[20]](#cite_note-20) Wood and [porcelain](/wiki/Porcelain) [dolls](/wiki/Doll) in miniature [doll houses](/wiki/Doll_house) were popular with middle-class girls, while boys played with marbles and toy trains.[[21]](#cite_note-21)

### Industrial Era and mass-marketed toys

/wiki/File:Hornby_pt1901.jpgFrank Hornby's 1901 patent number GB190100587A for what later became known as [Meccano](/wiki/Meccano)
/wiki/File:The_Employment_of_Women_in_Britain,_1914-1918_Q28156.jpgA child working in a factory producing [dolls](/wiki/Doll) during World War I.
The golden age of toy development occurred during the [Industrial Era](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution). [Real wages](/wiki/Real_wage) were rising steadily in the Western world, allowing even working-class families to afford toys for their children, and industrial techniques of precision engineering and mass production were able to provide the supply to meet this rising demand. Intellectual emphasis was also increasingly being placed on the importance of a wholesome and happy childhood for the future development of children. [Franz Kolb](/wiki/Franz_Kolb), a German pharmacist, invented [plasticine](/wiki/Plasticine) in 1880, and in 1900, commercial production of the material as a children's toy began. [Frank Hornby](/wiki/Frank_Hornby) was a visionary in toy development and manufacture and was responsible for the invention and production of three of the most popular lines of toys based on [engineering principles](/wiki/Engineering_mechanics) in the twentieth century: [Meccano](/wiki/Meccano), [Hornby Model Railways](/wiki/Hornby_Railways) and [Dinky Toys](/wiki/Dinky_Toys).

Meccano was a [model](/wiki/Scale_model) construction system that consisted of re-usable metal strips, plates, [angle](/wiki/Angle_iron) [girders](/wiki/Girder), wheels, axles and [gears](/wiki/Gear), with [nuts](/wiki/Nut_(hardware)) and [bolts](/wiki/Screw#bolt) to connect the pieces and enabled the building of working models and mechanical devices. [Dinky Toys](/wiki/Dinky_Toys) pioneered the manufacture of [die-cast toys](/wiki/Die-cast_toy) with the production of toy cars, trains, and ships, and model train sets became popular in the 1920s. The [Britains company](/wiki/Britains_(toy_brand)) revolutionized the production of [toy soldiers](/wiki/Toy_soldiers) with the invention of the process of [hollow casting](/wiki/Hollow_casting) in lead in 1893[[22]](#cite_note-22) – the company's products remained the industry standard for many years.

Puzzles became popular as well. In 1893, the English lawyer [Angelo John Lewis](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Angelo_John_Lewis), writing under the pseudonym of Professor Hoffman, wrote a book called Puzzles Old and New.[[23]](#cite_note-23) It contained, among other things, more than 40 descriptions of puzzles with secret opening mechanisms. This book grew into a reference work for puzzle games and was very popular at the time. The [Tangram](/wiki/Tangram) puzzle, originally from China, spread to Europe and America in the 19th century.

In 1903, a year after publishing [The Tale of Peter Rabbit](/wiki/The_Tale_of_Peter_Rabbit), English author [Beatrix Potter](/wiki/Beatrix_Potter) created the first [Peter Rabbit](/wiki/Peter_Rabbit) [soft toy](/wiki/Soft_toy) and registered him at the [Patent Office](/wiki/Intellectual_Property_Office_(United_Kingdom)) in London, making Peter the oldest licensed character.[[24]](#cite_note-24) It was followed by other "spin-off" merchandise over the years, including painting books and board games. The [Smithsonian](/wiki/Smithsonian_(magazine)) magazine stated, "Potter was also an entrepreneur and a pioneer in licensing and merchandising literary characters. Potter built a retail empire out of her "bunny book" that is worth $500 million today. In the process, she created a system that continues to benefit all licensed characters, from [Mickey Mouse](/wiki/Mickey_Mouse) to [Harry Potter](/wiki/Harry_Potter_(character))."[[25]](#cite_note-25)

In tandem with the development of mass-produced toys, Enlightenment ideals about children's rights to education and leisure time came to fruition. During the late 18th and early 19th century, many families needed to send their children to work in factories and other sites to make ends meet—just as their predecessors had required their labor producing household goods in the medieval era.[[26]](#cite_note-26) Business owners' exploitation and abuse of child laborers during this period differed from how children had been treated as workers within a family unit, though. Thanks to advocacy including photographic documentation of children's exploitation and abuse by business owners, Western nations enacted a series of child labor laws, putting an end to child labor in nations such as the U.S. (1949).[[27]](#cite_note-27) This fully entrenched, through law, the Western idea that childhood is a time for leisure, not work—and with leisure time comes more space for consumer goods such as toys.[[28]](#cite_note-The_Marketing_of_Children)

During the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War), some new types of toys were created through accidental innovation. After trying to create a replacement for [synthetic rubber](/wiki/Synthetic_rubber), the American [Earl L. Warrick](/wiki/Earl_L._Warrick) inadvertently invented "nutty putty" during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II). Later, Peter Hodgson recognized the potential as a childhood plaything and packaged it as [Silly Putty](/wiki/Silly_Putty). Similarly, [Play-Doh](/wiki/Play-Doh) was originally created as a wallpaper cleaner.[[29]](#cite_note-mit-29) In 1943 [Richard James](/wiki/Richard_T._James) was experimenting with springs as part of his military research when he saw one come loose and fall to the floor. He was intrigued by the way it flopped around on the floor. He spent two years fine-tuning the design to find the best gauge of steel and coil; the result was the [Slinky](/wiki/Slinky), which went on to sell in stores throughout the United States.[[30]](#cite_note-30)

After the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War), as Western society became ever more affluent and new technology and materials (plastics) for toy manufacture became available, toys became cheaper and more ubiquitous in households across the Western World. At this point, [name-brand](/wiki/Brand) toys became widespread in the U.S. – a new phenomenon that helped market mass-produce toys to audiences of children growing up with ample leisure time and during a period of relative prosperity.[[28]](#cite_note-The_Marketing_of_Children)

Among the more well-known products of the 1950s there was the Danish company [Lego](/wiki/Lego)'s line of colourful interlocking plastic brick construction sets (based on [Hilary Page](/wiki/Hilary_Page)'s [Kiddicraft](/wiki/Kiddicraft) Self-Locking Bricks, described by London's [V&A Museum of Childhood](/wiki/V%26A_Museum_of_Childhood) as among the "must-have toys" of the 1940s[[31]](#cite_note-31)), [Mr. Potato Head](/wiki/Mr._Potato_Head), the [Barbie doll](/wiki/Barbie_doll) (inspired by the [Bild Lilli doll](/wiki/Bild_Lilli_doll) from Germany), and [Action Man](/wiki/Action_Man).[[32]](#cite_note-32) The [Rubik's Cube](/wiki/Rubik%27s_Cube) became an enormous seller in the 1980s. In modern times, there are computerized dolls that can recognize and identify objects, the voice of their owner, and choose among hundreds of pre-programmed phrases with which to respond.[[33]](#cite_note-VanPatten-33)

## Culture

The act of children's play with toys embodies the values set forth by the adults of their specific community, but through the lens of the child's perspective. Within cultural societies, toys are a medium to enhance a child's cognitive, social, and linguistic learning.[[34]](#cite_note-Smith2010-34)

In some cultures, toys are used as a way to enhance a child's skillset within the traditional boundaries of their future roles in the community. In [Saharan](/wiki/Sahara) and [North African](/wiki/North_Africa) cultures, play is facilitated by children through the use of toys to enact scenes recognizable in their community, such as hunting and herding. The value is placed in a realistic version of development in preparing a child for the future they are likely to grow up into. This allows the child to imagine and create a personal interpretation of how they view the adult world.[[35]](#cite_note-Rossie2005-35)

However, in other cultures, toys are used to expand a child's cognitive development in an idealistic fashion. In these communities, adults place the value of play with toys alongside the aspirations they set forth for their child. In Western culture, Barbie and Action-Man represent lifelike figures, but in an imaginative state out of reach from the society of these children and adults. These toys give way to a unique world in which children's play is isolated and independent of the social constraints placed on society, leaving the children free to delve into the imaginary and idealized version of what their development in life could be.[[35]](#cite_note-Rossie2005-35)

In addition, children from differing communities may treat their toys in different ways based on their cultural practices. Children in more affluent communities may tend to be possessive of their toys, while children from poorer communities may be more willing to share and interact more with other children. The importance the child places on possession is dictated by the values in place within the community that the children observe on a daily basis.[[36]](#cite_note-Starr2013-36)

## Child development

/wiki/File:Child_playing_with_a_toy_cart_and_horse._-front-_(9726037522).jpg19th century illustration of a child playing with a toy [horse and cart](/wiki/Horse-drawn_vehicle)
Toys, like play itself, serve multiple purposes in both humans and animals. They provide entertainment while fulfilling an educational role, enhance [cognitive behavior](/wiki/Cognition), stimulate creativity, and aid in the development of physical, mental, social, and emotional skills, which are necessary in later life.[[37]](#cite_note-aap_toys-37)[[38]](#cite_note-38) However, different kinds of toys may lead to different outcomes, as do various forms of play.[[39]](#cite_note-39) In particular, a clinical report from the American Academy of Pediatrics stated that the developmental benefits of traditional toys involving language, creativity, pretending, problem-solving, physical activity, child-caregiver interaction, or peer play, are generally better supported by evidence than the educational claims often associated with digital or electronic toys.[[37]](#cite_note-aap_toys-37)

Wooden [blocks](/wiki/Block_(toy)), though simple, are regarded by early childhood education experts such as Sally Cartwright (1974) as an excellent toy for young children; she praised the fact that they are relatively easy to engage with, can be used in repeatable and predictable ways, and are versatile and open-ended, allowing for a wide variety of developmentally appropriate play.[[40]](#cite_note-40) Andrew Witkin, director of marketing for [Mega Brands](/wiki/Mega_Brands), told [Investor's Business Daily](/wiki/Investor%27s_Business_Daily) that "They help develop hand-eye coordination, math and science skills and also let kids be creative."[[41]](#cite_note-Tsuruoka-41) Other toys like [marbles](/wiki/Marbles), [jackstones](/wiki/Jackstones), and [balls](/wiki/Ball) serve similar functions in child development, allowing children to use their minds and bodies to learn about [spatial relationships](/wiki/Spatial_relationships), [cause and effect](/wiki/Cause_and_effect), and a wide range of other skills.[[42]](#cite_note-42)

/wiki/File:Hitting_the_Ball_in_the_Shadow_of_the_Banana_Leaves.jpgTwo children playing with [paddle balls](/wiki/Paddle_ball) in Hitting the Ball in the Shadow of the Banana, a painting by the [Chinese artist](/wiki/History_of_Chinese_art) Su Hanchen (苏汉臣, active 1130s–1160s AD), [Song dynasty](/wiki/Song_dynasty)
One example of the dramatic ways that toys can influence child development involves clay sculpting toys such as [Play-Doh](/wiki/Play-Doh) and [Silly Putty](/wiki/Silly_Putty) and their home-made counterparts. Mary Ucci, Educational Director of the Child Study Center of [Wellesley College](/wiki/Wellesley_College), has demonstrated how such toys positively impact the [physical development](/wiki/Physical_development), [cognitive development](/wiki/Cognitive_development), [emotional development](/wiki/Child_development#Social-emotional), and [social development](/wiki/Social_change) of children.[[43]](#cite_note-Ucci-43)

Toys for infants often make use of distinctive sounds, bright colors, and unique [textures](/wiki/Texture_(visual_arts)). Through repetition of play with toys, infants begin to recognize shapes and colors. [Play-Doh](/wiki/Play-Doh), [Silly Putty](/wiki/Silly_Putty), and other hands-on materials allow the child to make toys of their own.[[44]](#cite_note-44)

[Educational toys](/wiki/Educational_toy) for school age children of often contain a [puzzle](/wiki/Puzzle), problem-solving technique, or mathematical proposition. Often, toys designed for older audiences, such as teenagers or adults, demonstrate advanced concepts. [Newton's cradle](/wiki/Newton%27s_cradle), a desk toy designed by [Simon Prebble](/wiki/Simon_Prebble), demonstrates the [conservation of momentum and energy](/wiki/Conservation_law).

Not all toys are appropriate for all ages of children.[[45]](#cite_note-45) Even some toys which are marketed for a specific age range can even harm the development of children in that range, such as when for example toys meant for young girls contribute to the ongoing problem of girls' sexualization in Western culture.[[46]](#cite_note-46)

A study suggested that supplying fewer toys in the environment allows toddlers to better focus to explore and play more creatively. The provision of four rather than sixteen toys is thus suggested to promote children's development and healthy play.[[47]](#cite_note-47)

### Age compression

Age compression is a term used by some researchers and commentators to describe a perceived trend in which children move through play stages at earlier ages than in previous decades.[[48]](#cite_note-48) Children have a desire to progress to more complex toys at a faster pace, girls in particular. Barbie dolls, for example, were once marketed to girls around 8 years old but have been found to be more popular in recent years with girls around 3 years old,[[49]](#cite_note-Pressler-49) with most girls outgrowing the brand by about age 7.[[50]](#cite_note-50) The packaging for the dolls labels them appropriate for ages 3 and up. Boys, in contrast, apparently enjoy toys and games over a longer timespan, gravitating towards toys that meet their interest in assembling and disassembling mechanical toys, and toys that "move fast and things that fight". An industry executive points out that girls have entered the "[tween](/wiki/Preadolescence)" phase by the time they are 8 years old and want non-traditional toys, whereas boys have been maintaining an interest in traditional toys until they are 12 years old, meaning the traditional toy industry holds onto their boy customers for 50% longer than their girl customers.[[49]](#cite_note-Pressler-49)

Girls gravitate towards "music, clothes, make-up, television talent shows and celebrities". As young children are more exposed to and drawn to music intended for older children and teens, companies are having to rethink how they develop and market their products.[[51]](#cite_note-51) Girls also demonstrate a longer loyalty to characters in toys and games marketed towards them.[[52]](#cite_note-Tansel-52) A variety of global toy companies have marketed themselves to this aspect of girls' development, for example, the [Hello Kitty](/wiki/Hello_Kitty) brand and the [Disney Princess](/wiki/Disney_Princess) franchise.[[53]](#cite_note-53) Boys have shown an interest in computer games at an ever-younger age in recent years.[[54]](#cite_note-54)

## Gender

/wiki/File:Tank_toy_radio.JPGA toy tank with a remote control. Such toys are generally thought of as boys' toys.

Certain toys, such as [Barbie](/wiki/Barbie) dolls and toy soldiers, are often perceived as being more acceptable for one gender than the other. The turning point for the addition of gender to toys came about in the 1960s and 1970s. Before 1975, only about two percent of toys were labeled by gender, whereas today on the Disney store's website, considered a dominating global force for toys by researcher Claire Miller, all toys are labeled by gender.[[55]](#cite_note-Miller2015-55) The journal [Sex Roles](/wiki/Sex_Roles_(journal)) began publishing research on this topic in 1975, focusing on the effects of gender in youth. Too many psychological textbooks began to address this new issue. Along with these publications, researchers also started to challenge the ideas of male and female as being opposites, even going as far as to claim toys which have characteristics of both genders are preferable.[[56]](#cite_note-pmid21747580-56)

A milestone for research on gender is the use of [meta-analysis](/wiki/Meta-analysis), which provides a way to assess patterns in a systematic way, especially relevant for a topic such as gender, which can be difficult to quantify.[[56]](#cite_note-pmid21747580-56) [Nature and nurture](/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture) have historically been analyzed when looking at gender in play, as well as reinforcement by peers and parents of typical [gender roles](/wiki/Gender_role) and consequently, gender play.[[56]](#cite_note-pmid21747580-56) Toy companies have often promoted segregation by gender in toys because it enables them to customize the same toy for each gender, which ultimately doubles their revenue. For example, Legos added more colors to certain sets of toys in the 1990s, including colors commonly attributed to girls such as lavender.[[57]](#cite_note-57)

It has been noted by researchers that, "Children as young as 18 months display sex-stereotyped toy choices".[[58]](#cite_note-Caldera-58) When eye movement is tracked in young infants, infant girls show a visual preference for a doll over a toy truck (d > 1.0). Boys showed no preference for the truck over the doll. However, they did fixate on the truck more than the girls (d = .78).[[59]](#cite_note-59) This small study suggests that even before any self-awareness of gender identity has emerged, children already prefer sex-typical toys. These differences in toy choice are well established within the child by the age of three.[[60]](#cite_note-60)

Another study done by Jeffrey Trawick-Smith took 60 different children ages three to four and observed them playing with nine different toys deemed best for development. They were allowed to play with the toys in a typical environment, a preschool classroom, which allowed for the results to be more authentic compared to research done in a lab. The researchers then quantified play quality of the children with each toy based on factors such as learning, problem solving, curiosity, creativity, imagination, and peer interaction. The results revealed that boys generally received higher scores for overall play quality than girls, and the toys with the best play quality were those identified as the most gender-neutral, such as building blocks and bricks, along with pieces modeling people. Trawick-Smith then concluded that the study encourages a focus on toys that are beneficial to both genders in order to create a better balance.[[61]](#cite_note-Trawick-Smith_et_al._2015-61)

While some parents promote gender neutral play, many parents encourage their children to participate in sex-typed activities, including doll-playing and engaging in housekeeping activities for girls and playing with trucks and engaging in sports activities for boys.[[62]](#cite_note-62) Researcher Susan Witt said that parents are the primary influencers on the gender roles of their children.[[63]](#cite_note-pmid9179321-63) Parents, siblings, peers, and even teachers have been shown to react more positively to children engaging in sex-typical behavior and playing with sex-typical toys.[[64]](#cite_note-Servin,_A._1999-64) This is often done through encouragement or discouragement, as well as suggestions[[63]](#cite_note-pmid9179321-63) and imitation.[[citation needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)] Additionally, sons are more likely to be reinforced for sex-typical play and discouraged from atypical play.[[64]](#cite_note-Servin,_A._1999-64) However, it is generally not as looked down upon for girls to play with toys designed "for boys", an activity which has also become more common in recent years.[[65]](#cite_note-65) Fathers are also more likely to reinforce typical play and discourage atypical play than mothers are.[[66]](#cite_note-66) A study done by researcher Susan Witt suggests that stereotypes are oftentimes only strengthened by the environment, which perpetuates them to linger in older life.[[63]](#cite_note-pmid9179321-63)

This stereotypical attribution of sex-typical toys for girls and boys is gradually changing, with toy companies creating more gender neutral toys, as the benefits associated with allowing children to play with toys that appeal to them far outweighs controlling their individual preferences.[[67]](#cite_note-67) For example, many stores are beginning to change their gender labels on children's play items. [Target](/wiki/Target_Corporation) removed all identification related to gender from their toy aisles, and Disney did the same for their costumes.[[55]](#cite_note-Miller2015-55) The Disney store is an especially prevalent example of gender in play because it is a global identity in the toy world. A study done regarding their website found that though they have removed gender labels from their costumes, the toys online reflect more stereotypical gender identities. For example, toys depicting males were associated with physicality, and females were associated with beauty, housing, and caring.[[68]](#cite_note-:5-68) Though Disney promotes their toys as being for both genders, there is no gender neutral section on their website. Those that are generally deemed for both genders more closely resemble what many would label "boy toys," as they relate closer to the stereotype of masculinity within play.[[68]](#cite_note-:5-68)

Traditions within various cultures promote the passing down of certain toys to their children based on the child's gender. In [Indigenous South American](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_South_America) communities, boys receive a toy bow and arrow from their father, while young girls receive a toy basket from their mother.[[34]](#cite_note-Smith2010-34) In North African and Saharan cultural communities, gender plays a role in the creation of self-made dolls. While female dolls are used to represent brides, mothers, and wives, male dolls are used to represent horsemen and warriors. This contrast stems from the various roles of men and women within the Saharan and North African communities. There are differences in the toys that are intended for girls and boys within various cultures, which is reflective of the differing roles of men and women within a specific cultural community.[[35]](#cite_note-Rossie2005-35)

Research on the repercussions of gender in toys suggests that desegregation of the genders can be achieved by encouraging more gender-neutral play.[[61]](#cite_note-Trawick-Smith_et_al._2015-61) Researchers Carol Auster and Claire Mansbach have argued that allowing children to play with toys which more closely fit their talents would help them to better develop their skills.[[68]](#cite_note-:5-68) In terms of parental influence, a study found that parents who demonstrated some androgynous behavior have higher scores in support, warmth, and self-worth in regards to the treatment of their children.[[63]](#cite_note-pmid9179321-63) Even as this debate is evolving and children are becoming more inclined to cross barriers in terms of gender with their toys, girls are typically more encouraged to do so than boys because of the societal value of masculinity.[[55]](#cite_note-Miller2015-55)

## Economics

/wiki/File:Making_toys,_Digby,_Nova_Scotia._2008.jpgMaking toys, [Digby, Nova Scotia](/wiki/Digby,_Nova_Scotia). 2008
With toys comprising such a large and important part of human existence, the toy industry has a substantial economic impact. Sales of toys often increase around holidays where gift-giving is a tradition. Some of these holidays include Christmas, Easter, [Saint Nicholas Day](/wiki/Saint_Nicholas_Day), and [Three Kings Day](/wiki/Three_Kings_Day).

In 2005, toy sales in the United States totaled about $22.9 billion.[[41]](#cite_note-Tsuruoka-41) Money spent on children between the ages of 8 and twelve alone totals approximately $221 million annually in the U.S.[[69]](#cite_note-tweens-69) It was estimated that in 2011, 88% of toy sales was in the age group 0–11 years.[[70]](#cite_note-NPD_Group-70)

/wiki/File:Toys_R_Us_sg.JPG[Toys "R" Us](/wiki/Toys_%22R%22_Us) operated over 1,500 stores in 30 countries and had an annual revenue of US$13.6 billion
Toy companies change and adapt their toys to meet the changing demands of children thereby gaining a larger share of the substantial market. In recent years many toys have become more complicated with flashing lights and sounds in an effort to appeal to children raised around television and the internet. According to [Mattel](/wiki/Mattel)'s president, Neil Friedman, "Innovation is key in the toy industry and to succeed one must create a 'wow' moment for kids by designing toys that have fun, innovative features and include new technologies and engaging content."

In an effort to reduce costs, many mass producers of toys locate their factories in areas where wages are lower. China manufactures about 70 percent of the world's toys and is home to more than 8,000 toy firms, most of which are located in the [Pearl River Delta](/wiki/Pearl_River_Delta) of [Guangdong Province](/wiki/Guangdong).[[71]](#cite_note-71) 75% of all toys sold in the U.S., for example, are manufactured in China.[[41]](#cite_note-Tsuruoka-41) Issues and events such as power outages, supply of raw materials, supply of labor, and raising wages that impact areas where factories are located often have an enormous impact on the toy industry in importing countries.

Many traditional toy makers have been losing sales to [video game](/wiki/Video_game) [makers](/wiki/Video_game_industry) for years. Because of this, some traditional toy makers have entered the field of [electronic games](/wiki/Electronic_game) and have even been turning [audio games](/wiki/Audio_games) into toys, and are enhancing the brands that they have by introducing interactive extensions or internet connectivity to their current toys.[[72]](#cite_note-Ibisworld-72)

In addition, the rise of [distributed manufacturing](/wiki/Distributed_manufacturing) enables consumers to make their own toys from [open source](/wiki/Open_source) designs with a [3-D printer](/wiki/3-D_printer).[[73]](#cite_note-73) As of 2017 consumers were already offsetting millions of dollars per year by [3D printing](/wiki/3D_printing) their own toys from [MyMiniFactory](/wiki/MyMiniFactory), a single repository.[[74]](#cite_note-74)[[75]](#cite_note-75)

## Types

/wiki/File:Lincoln_Logs_sawmill.jpg[Lincoln Logs](/wiki/Lincoln_Logs) have been a popular construction type toy in the U.S. since the 1920s.

### Construction sets

The Greek philosopher [Plato](/wiki/Plato) wrote that the future [architect](/wiki/Architect) should play at building houses as a child.[[76]](#cite_note-Hils-76) A [construction set](/wiki/Construction_set) is a collection of separate pieces that can be joined to create [models](/wiki/Scale_model). Popular models include cars, [spaceships](/wiki/Spacecraft), and houses. The things that are built are sometimes used as toys once completed, but generally speaking, the object is to build things of one's own design, and old models often are broken up with the pieces reused in new models.

The oldest and perhaps most common construction toy is a set of simple wooden [blocks](/wiki/Toy_block), which are often painted in bright colors and given to babies and toddlers. Construction sets such as [Lego](/wiki/Lego) bricks and [Lincoln Logs](/wiki/Lincoln_Logs) are designed for slightly older children and have been quite popular in the last century.
Construction sets appeal to children (and adults) who like to work with their hands, puzzle solvers, and imaginative sorts.

Some other examples include [Bayko](/wiki/Bayko), Konstruk-Tubes, [K'Nex](/wiki/K%27Nex), [Erector Sets](/wiki/Erector_Set), [Tinkertoys](/wiki/Tinkertoy), and [Meccano](/wiki/Meccano), and generic construction toys such as [Neodymium magnet toys](/wiki/Neodymium_magnet_toys).

### Dolls and miniatures

Main article: [doll](/wiki/Doll)

/wiki/File:Child_and_Doll.jpgA girl and her [doll](/wiki/Doll) in the 1900s
A [doll](/wiki/Doll) is a model of a human (often a baby), a humanoid (like [Bert and Ernie](/wiki/Bert_and_Ernie)), or an animal. Modern dolls are often made of cloth or plastic. Other materials that are, or have been, used in the manufacture of dolls include [cornhusks](/wiki/Husk), [bone](/wiki/Bone), [stone](/wiki/Rock_(geology)), wood, [porcelain](/wiki/Porcelain) (sometimes called china), [bisque](/wiki/Bisque_doll), [celluloid](/wiki/Celluloid), [wax](/wiki/Wax), and even apples. Often, people will make dolls out of whatever materials are available to them.

Sometimes intended as decorations, keepsakes, or [collectibles](/wiki/Collectible) for older children and adults, most dolls are intended as toys for children, usually girls, to play with. Dolls have been found in [Egyptian](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt) tombs that date to as early as 2000 BCE.[[10]](#cite_note-Maspero-10)

Dolls are usually miniatures, but baby dolls may be of true size and weight. A doll or [stuffed animal](/wiki/Stuffed_animal) of soft material is sometimes called a [plush toy](/wiki/Plush_toy) or [plushie](/wiki/Stuffed_toy). A popular toy of this type is the [Teddy Bear](/wiki/Teddy_Bear).

/wiki/File:3_Humfrey_hug-a-bears.jpegTeddy Bears
A distinction is often made between dolls and [action figures](/wiki/Action_figure), which are generally of plastic or semi-metallic construction and poseable to some extent, and often are merchandising from television shows or films which feature the characters. Modern action figures, such as [Action Man](/wiki/Action_Man), are often marketed towards boys, whereas dolls are often marketed towards girls.

[Toy soldiers](/wiki/Toy_soldiers), perhaps a precursor to modern [action figures](/wiki/Action_figures), have been a popular toy for centuries. They allow children to act out battles, often with toy military equipment and a castle or fort. Miniature animal figures are also widespread, with children perhaps acting out farm activities with animals and equipment centered on a toy farm.

### Vehicles

/wiki/File:Knatterboot.jpgA [toy boat](/wiki/Pop_pop_boat)

Children have played with miniature versions of vehicles since ancient times, with toy two-wheeled [carts](/wiki/Cart) being depicted on [ancient Greek vases](/wiki/Pottery_of_Ancient_Greece).[[76]](#cite_note-Hils-76) [Wind-up toys](/wiki/Wind-up_toy) have also played a part in the advancement of toy vehicles. Modern equivalents include toy [cars](/wiki/Motor_vehicle) such as those produced by [Matchbox](/wiki/Matchbox_(toy_company)) or [Hot Wheels](/wiki/Hot_Wheels), miniature aircraft, toy boats, [military vehicles](/wiki/Military_vehicle), and [trains](/wiki/Toy_train). Examples of the latter range from wooden sets for younger children such as [BRIO](/wiki/BRIO) to more complicated realistic [train models](/wiki/Rail_transport_modeling) like those produced by [Lionel](/wiki/Lionel_Corporation), [Doepke](/wiki/Doepke_Toys) and [Hornby](/wiki/Hornby_Railways). Larger die-cast vehicles, 1:18 scale, have become popular toys; these vehicles are produced with a great attention to detail.[[citation needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)]

### Puzzles

/wiki/File:Rubik%27s_cube.svgA Rubik's Cube
A puzzle is a [problem](/wiki/Problem_solving) or enigma that challenges ingenuity. Solutions to puzzles may require recognizing [patterns](/wiki/Pattern) and creating a particular order. People with a high [inductive reasoning aptitude](/wiki/Inductive_reasoning_aptitude) may be better at solving these puzzles than others. Puzzles based on the process of inquiry and discovery to complete may be solved faster by those with good [deduction](/wiki/Deductive_reasoning) skills. A popular puzzle toy is the [Rubik's Cube](/wiki/Rubik%27s_Cube), invented by Hungarian [Ernő Rubik](/wiki/Ern%C5%91_Rubik) in 1974. Popularized in the 1980s, solving the cube requires planning and problem-solving skills and involves algorithms.

There are many different types of puzzles; for example, a [maze](/wiki/Maze) is a type of [tour puzzle](/wiki/Tour_puzzle). Other categories include: construction puzzles, [stick puzzles](/wiki/Stick_puzzle), [tiling puzzles](/wiki/Tiling_puzzle), [disentanglement puzzles](/wiki/Disentanglement_puzzle), [sliding puzzles](/wiki/Sliding_puzzle), [logic puzzles](/wiki/Logic_puzzle), [picture puzzles](/wiki/Picture_puzzle), [lock puzzles](/wiki/Lock_puzzle), and [mechanical puzzles](/wiki/Mechanical_puzzle).

### Collectibles

Some toys, such as [Beanie Babies](/wiki/Beanie_Baby), attract large numbers of enthusiasts, eventually becoming [collectibles](/wiki/Collectible). Other toys, such as [Boyds Bears](/wiki/Boyds_Bears) are marketed to adults as collectibles. Some people spend large sums of money in an effort to acquire larger and more complete collections. The record for a single [Pez dispenser](/wiki/Pez_dispenser) at an auction, for example, is US$1100.[[77]](#cite_note-Brown-77)

### Promotional merchandise

/wiki/File:John_Deere_toy_tractor.jpgThis toy tractor also serves as an advertisement for [John Deere](/wiki/John_Deere).
Many successful films, television programs, books and sport teams have official merchandise, which often includes related toys. Some notable examples are [Star Wars](/wiki/Star_Wars) (a space fantasy franchise) and [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C.), an English [football](/wiki/Association_football) club.

Likewise, many successful children's films, television series, books or franchises extend their marketing campaign to [fast food](/wiki/Fast_food) chains by including small toys of fictional characters or the series' associated symbols in a sealed plastic bag within their [kids' meals](/wiki/Kids%27_meal). One famous example is the [Happy Meal](/wiki/Happy_Meal) from [McDonald's](/wiki/McDonald%27s).[[78]](#cite_note-Bishop-78)

Promotional toys can fall into any of the other toy categories; for example, they can be dolls or action figures based on the characters of movies or professional athletes, or they can be balls, yo-yos, or [lunch boxes](/wiki/Lunch_box) with logos on them. Sometimes they are given away for free as a form of advertising. [Model aircraft](/wiki/Model_aircraft) are often toys that are used by airlines to promote their brand, just as [toy cars and trucks](/wiki/Die_cast_toy) and [model trains](/wiki/Model_train) are used by trucking, railroad and other companies as well. Many food manufacturers run promotions where a toy is included with the main product as a [prize](/wiki/Prize_(marketing)). Toys are also used as [premiums](/wiki/Premium_(marketing)), where consumers redeem [proofs of purchase](/wiki/Proof_of_purchase) from a product and pay shipping and handling fees to get the toy. Some people go to great lengths to collect these sorts of promotional toys.

### Digital toys

Digital toys are toys that incorporate some form of interactive digital technology.[[79]](#cite_note-79) Examples of digital toys include [virtual pets](/wiki/Virtual_pets) and [handheld electronic games](/wiki/Handheld_electronic_games). Among the earliest digital toys are [Mattel Auto Race](/wiki/Mattel_Auto_Race) and the [Little Professor](/wiki/Little_Professor), both released in 1976. The concept of using technology in a way that bridges the digital with the physical world, providing unique interactive experiences for the user, has also been referred to as [phygital](/wiki/Phygital).[[80]](#cite_note-80)

### Physical activity

/wiki/File:Jakarta_old_football.jpgA boy from [Jakarta](/wiki/Jakarta) with his ball. [Ball games](/wiki/Ball_game) are good exercise, and are popular worldwide.
A large amount of toys are part of active play. These include traditional toys such as [hoops](/wiki/Hoop_rolling), [tops](/wiki/Spinning_top), [jump ropes](/wiki/Jump_rope), and [balls](/wiki/Ball), as well as more modern toys like [Frisbees](/wiki/Frisbee), [foot bags](/wiki/Foot_bag), [fidget toys](/wiki/Fidget_toy), [astrojax](/wiki/Astrojax), and [Myachi](/wiki/Myachi).

Playing with these sorts of toys allows children to exercise, building strong bones and muscles and aiding in [physical fitness](/wiki/Physical_fitness). Throwing and catching balls and Frisbees can improve [hand–eye coordination](/wiki/Eye%E2%80%93hand_coordination). Jumping rope, (also known as skipping) and playing with foot bags can improve balance.

## Safety regulations

/wiki/File:LEGO-01.jpgToys with small parts, such as these [Lego](/wiki/Lego) elements are required by law in some countries to have warnings about choking hazards.
Many countries have passed [safety standards](/wiki/Safety_standards) limiting the types of toys that can be sold. Most of these seek to limit potential hazards, such as [choking](/wiki/Choking) or [fire hazards](/wiki/Fire_hazard) that could cause injury. Children, especially very young ones, often put toys into their mouths, so the materials used to make a toy are regulated to prevent poisoning. Materials are also regulated to prevent fire hazards. Young children cannot judge what is safe and what is dangerous, and parents do not always think of all possible situations, so such warnings and regulations are important on toys.[[citation needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)]

Every country has its own regulations on toy safety, but since the [globalization](/wiki/Globalization) and opening of markets, most of them try to harmonize their regulations. The most common danger for younger children is to put toys in their mouths. This is why chemicals contained in paint and other components of children's products are carefully regulated. Countries or trade zones such as the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union) regularly publish lists to regulate the quantities or ban chemicals from toys and juvenile products. The globalization of toys has had negative effects on locally produced toys in various countries, pushing out traditional ways of play[[81]](#cite_note-ReferenceA-81) and presenting new risks to children in areas where parental [literacy](/wiki/Literacy) levels make it hard for parents to understand the risks and age-appropriateness of various imported toys.[[81]](#cite_note-ReferenceA-81)

There have also been issues of toy safety regarding [lead paint](/wiki/Lead_paint). Some toy factories, when projects become too large for them to handle, outsource production to other less known factories, often in other countries. Recently,[[when?](/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items)] there were some in China that America had to send back. The subcontractors may not be watched as closely and sometimes use improper manufacturing methods. The U.S. government, along with mass market stores, is now moving towards requiring companies to submit their products to testing before they end up on shelves.[[82]](#cite_note-82)

## Disposal

/wiki/File:Crashbobby_02-small.JPGSome communities require recycling of the batteries in toys such as [qfix robot "crash-bobby"](/wiki/Qfix).
When toys have been outgrown or are no longer wanted, they may be donated to charity, sold at [garage sales](/wiki/Garage_sale), [auctioned](/wiki/Auction), or even donated to museums. However, when toys are broken, worn out or otherwise unfit for use, care should be taken when disposing of them. Donated or resold toys should be gently used, clean and have all parts.[[83]](#cite_note-Goodwilldonationguidelines-83) Before disposal of any battery-o
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太好了，我找到了一些有用的信息。现在让我尝试搜索更具体的信息，特别是关于英国的手办制造商：


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Hornby Railways
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Hornby Hobbies Limited/wiki/File:Hornby_company_logo.svg
/wiki/File:Margate,_Hornby_Visitor_Centre_(geograph_2743120).jpgHornby visitor centre in Margate, UK

Formerly
List

- Hornby Dublo (1938–63)

- Hornby Railways (1972–80)

- Hornby Hobbies Limited(1980–2015)

Company type

- [Private](/wiki/Privately_held_company) (1901–64)

- [Subsidiary](/wiki/Subsidiary) (1964–80)

- [Public](/wiki/Public_company) (1980–)[[1]](#cite_note-hearns-1)

[Traded as](/wiki/Ticker_symbol)

[LSE](/wiki/London_Stock_Exchange): [HRN](https://www.londonstockexchange.com/stock/HRN//)
Industry[Scale model](/wiki/Scale_model)
Founded1901; 125 years ago
Founder[Frank Hornby](/wiki/Frank_Hornby)
FateAcquired by [Tri-ang Railways](/wiki/Tri-ang_Railways) in 1964, then other takeovers
Headquarters[Margate](/wiki/Margate), [Kent](/wiki/Kent), England
Products

- [Model railways](/wiki/Rail_transport_modelling)

- [Model cars](/wiki/Model_car)

- [Slot cars](/wiki/Slot_car)

Brands
List

- [Bassett-Lowke](/wiki/Bassett-Lowke)

- [Corgi](/wiki/Corgi_Toys)

- [Jouef](/wiki/Jouef)

- [Lima](/wiki/Lima_(models))

- [Pocher](/wiki/Pocher)

- [Scalextric](/wiki/Scalextric)

- [Airfix](/wiki/Airfix)

- [Humbrol](/wiki/Humbrol)

- [Rivarossi](/wiki/Rivarossi)

- Arnold

- Electrotren

Revenue[£](/wiki/Pound_sterling)37.8 million (2020)[[2]](#cite_note-AnnualReport2020-2)
[Operating income](/wiki/Earnings_before_interest_and_taxes)

£200,000 (2020)[[2]](#cite_note-AnnualReport2020-2)
[Net income](/wiki/Net_income)

-£2.8 million (2020)[[2]](#cite_note-AnnualReport2020-2)
Number of employees
191 (2020)[[2]](#cite_note-AnnualReport2020-2)
[Parent](/wiki/Parent_company)Phoenix Asset Management
(2017–present)[[3]](#cite_note-pam-3)
Website[uk.hornby.com](https://uk.hornby.com/)

Hornby Hobbies Limited is a British [scale model](/wiki/Scale_model) manufacturing company; the name is particularly associated with its [model railways](/wiki/Rail_transport_modelling). Its roots date back to 1901 in [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool), when founder [Frank Hornby](/wiki/Frank_Hornby) received a patent for his [Meccano](/wiki/Meccano) construction toy. The first clockwork train was produced in 1920. In 1938, Hornby launched its first [OO gauge](/wiki/OO_gauge) train. In 1964, Hornby and Meccano were in financial difficulties and were bought by a competitor [Lines Brothers](/wiki/Lines_Bros) ([Tri-ang Railways](/wiki/Tri-ang_Railways)),[[4]](#cite_note-Brown-4) the railway brand becoming "Tri-ang Hornby". Hornby Railways became independent again in the 1980s, and became listed on the [London Stock Exchange](/wiki/London_Stock_Exchange), but due to financial troubles reported in June 2017,[[5]](#cite_note-BBC40371393-5)[[6]](#cite_note-6) became majority owned by British turnaround specialist Phoenix Asset Management.[[5]](#cite_note-BBC40371393-5)[[3]](#cite_note-pam-3)

Hornby Hobbies bought model paint manufacturer [Humbrol](/wiki/Humbrol) and their scale model kit subsidiary [Airfix](/wiki/Airfix) in 2007. The die-cast model car brand [Corgi](/wiki/Corgi_Toys) was added in 2008.

Hornby's other brands include for model railways [Bassett-Lowke](/wiki/Bassett-Lowke), [Jouef](/wiki/Jouef), [Lima](/wiki/Lima_(models)), Rivarossi and Electrotren, the large scale car model kit [Pocher](/wiki/Pocher), and the scale car racing [Scalextric](/wiki/Scalextric).

### Early history: 1920–1938
[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Hornby_Railways&action=edit&section=2)]

/wiki/File:Radio_Times_-_1923-12-21_-_p484_(cropped,_b%26w).jpgHornby Clockwork Trains advertisement, from 21 December 1923 issue of The Radio Times
Hornby was at first a [trade name](/wiki/Trade_name) for the railway productions of [Meccano Ltd](/wiki/Meccano_Ltd) and based around [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool). Until 1907 the company produced under the name of Mechanics made easy.[[7]](#cite_note-7) Hornby released its first train, a [clockwork](/wiki/Clockwork) [0 gauge](/wiki/0_gauge) (1:48) model, in 1920. An electric train soon followed but was under-designed and the few that were made were sold in France. In 1925, a much more successful electric model was introduced, operating on the high voltage of 110 volts [AC](/wiki/Alternating_current) power.

Safety concerns saw low voltage 4V and then 6V motors introduced, followed by a reliable 20V AC system, which was developed in the early 1930s. However, clockwork remained the mainstay of the Hornby 0 gauge trains until 1937 and became the only power available in Liverpool-made 0 gauge trains from 1949. Competitors in the UK were [Leeds Model Company](/wiki/Leeds_Model_Company) and [Bassett-Lowke](/wiki/Bassett-Lowke).

/wiki/File:JLL_Childhood_Collection-_Model_Trains-_station_2753c.JPGHornby O gauge tinplate models
A factory was established in France, which developed its own range of French outline trains, but Liverpool dominated export activity elsewhere, with large numbers of Hornby trains exported to Australia, New Zealand, Argentina and Scandinavia. Even though the export models were often painted in 'foreign' liveries, Hornby trains looked very British. Hornby attempted to break into the American market by setting up a factory in 1927 in [Elizabeth, New Jersey](/wiki/Elizabeth,_New_Jersey), to make American-style trains.

These were colourful and attractive, but low-market and only clockwork. They probably would have failed in the marketplace because several established U.S. firms could undercut them and Hornby offered no better-class goods or electric models, but the [Wall Street crash](/wiki/Wall_Street_crash) precipitated matters. In late 1929, Meccano Ltd. sold its New Jersey factory to the [A. C. Gilbert Company](/wiki/A._C._Gilbert_Company) and Hornby trains had vanished from the U.S. market by 1930. The leftover inventory was sold in Canada and in the UK and some of the tooling was reused for products in other markets.

### Hornby Dublo era: 1938–1963
[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Hornby_Railways&action=edit&section=3)]

/wiki/File:Hornby_dublo_logo.jpg"Hornby Dublo" logo, 1956–1961
Meccano introduced its [OO scale](/wiki/OO_scale) trains in 1938 under the name 'Hornby Dublo'. The locomotives were diecast metal, and the carriages and wagons were generally made of tinplate. This was a very well planned range of electric and clockwork models, successfully consolidating 12 V DC as the standard for OO scale. This led to the adoption of OO as a broadly accepted modelling standard in the UK, whereas much of the rest of the world adopted HO scale. As for their O gauge locomotives, electric Hornby Dublo locomotives ran on a [third rail](/wiki/Third_rail_(model_railroading)) electric system with the track built on a pressed tinplate base.

Both OO and HO use the same track gauge, but their scales are different. Beginning as literally "half O gauge", the HO models of continental prototypes at 3.5 mm/foot (1:87) scale were workable but Hornby chose to slightly increase the scale to 4 mm/foot for the smaller British prototypes, to provide more internal space for a motor. This has had the effect, remaining to this day, of making their gauge an apparent 4 ft 1+1⁄2 in (1,257 mm) rather than the true 4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm) [standard gauge](/wiki/Standard_gauge).

The range expanded quickly, but was curtailed from 1940 due to [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II), production being completely suspended in 1942. Production resumed after the war but did not reach full capacity until 1948. Clockwork models were not produced in 00 scale after the war.

In 2008, a special commemorative model of [LNER Class A4 4498 Sir Nigel Gresley](/wiki/LNER_Class_A4_4498_Sir_Nigel_Gresley) was produced, in period packaging, to celebrate the 70th anniversary of this introduction.

/wiki/File:City_of_Liverpool_locomotive_model.jpgHornby Dublo model of an [LMS Coronation](/wiki/LMS_Coronation_Class) locomotive City of Liverpool
Like its counterparts [Bassett-Lowke](/wiki/Bassett-Lowke) and [Exley](/wiki/Edward_Exley_Limited) in the UK and [Lionel](/wiki/Lionel,_LLC) and [American Flyer](/wiki/American_Flyer) in the US, Hornby thrived in the first half of the 1950s but struggled in the second half of the decade. The company was slow to recognise the threat posed by rival manufacturers (particularly Triang-Rovex)[[4]](#cite_note-Brown-4) and to realise the potential of plastic. In 1959, far too late, Hornby introduced two-rail track and moulded plastic rolling stock (the Super Detail series), but even then the system was complicated and difficult to use in comparison to its rivals. With the benefit of hindsight, the policy of keeping the faith with its existing three-rail users whilst bringing the two-rail system to the market was a mistake that cost the company dearly. Whilst all the newer plastic-wheeled rolling stock was compatible with either system, the locomotives (and track) most definitely were not, requiring the two parallel productions of practically every locomotive* in the range to be offered in both formats. Meanwhile, the company persisted in producing a range of very old-fashioned 0 gauge models, in 1957 completely retooling much of the range instead of taking the opportunity to discontinue it, indicative of major failings at management level.

(* With the exception of the very first two-rail locomotive, a Southern Region R1 0-6-0 tank engine; the later E3002 AL1 Bo-Bo electric locomotive was ordinarily two-rail only but three-rail ones were made to special order.)

### Tri-ang Hornby: 1964–1972
[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Hornby_Railways&action=edit&section=4)]

/wiki/File:Hornby_triang_logo.pngLogo, 1966–1972
/wiki/File:Hornby_9F_2-10-0_Evening_star.jpgA Hornby model of a [BR standard class 9F](/wiki/BR_standard_class_9F)
In 1964, [Lines Bros Ltd](/wiki/Lines_Bros_Ltd)., the parent company of rival [Tri-ang Railways](/wiki/Tri-ang_Railways), purchased [Meccano Ltd](/wiki/Meccano_Ltd)., and merged Hornby and Tri-ang into Tri-ang Hornby.[[4]](#cite_note-Brown-4) The former Hornby line was discontinued in favour of Tri-ang's less costly plastic designs. The Hornby Dublo tooling was sold to [G & R Wrenn](/wiki/G_%26_R_Wrenn), which continued to make most of the loco range and 'superdetail' rolling stock. Remaining stocks of 0 gauge were either scrapped or sold to the local retailer [Hattons Model Railways](/wiki/Hattons_Model_Railways); it took Hattons about 30 years to sell off the stock.[[8]](#cite_note-8)

### Hornby Railways: 1972–1980
[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Hornby_Railways&action=edit&section=5)]

/wiki/File:Logo_Hornby_Railways.jpgLogo, 1978–1996
The Tri-ang group was disbanded in 1971 when Meccano Ltd's owner Lines Bros. filed for bankruptcy. The former Tri-ang Hornby was sold to Dunbee-Combex-Marx, becoming Hornby Railways in 1972. By 1976 Hornby was facing challenges from [Palitoy](/wiki/Palitoy) and [Airfix](/wiki/Airfix), both of which were producing high quality detailed models. Detail on the models was upgraded to make the product line more attractive to adult hobbyists.

A digital model railway control system named [Zero 1](/wiki/Digital_model_railway_control_systems#Hornby_Railways_Zero_1) was introduced in late 1979.[[9]](#cite_note-9) The Zero 1 system enabled the simultaneous control of up to 16 locomotives and up to 99 accessories such as points and signals.

Zero 1 was based on digital, not analogue, technology. This really was the first digital system[[10]](#cite_note-10) and as such was a forerunner to the [Märklin Digital](/wiki/M%C3%A4rklin_Digital) which appeared in the mid-1980s and the [National Model Railroad Association](/wiki/National_Model_Railroad_Association) (NMRA) [Digital Command Control](/wiki/Digital_Command_Control) (DCC) system, which appeared around 1990 and was standardized internationally in the mid-1990s.

Although an important milestone, Zero 1 was not a lasting success. The Master Control unit last appeared in the catalog in 1985. The slave controller, the locomotive module, and the accessory module were still available until the late 1980s. The system is still used today by many modellers, highlighted by the demand on such sites like eBay for the items in the secondhand market. The Main Master unit was discontinued in 1986, and finally the last time Loco Modules were listed was in the 1991 catalogue 'Limited supplies of R955 Loco module are available'. Repairs to Zero 1 units were no longer undertaken by Hornby apparently due to 'Lack of available parts required'.

Despite being on the market for a short time, Zero 1 had the largest installed base among command control systems in the early 1980s in North America, according to a reader survey done by Model Railroader magazine.

As part of the 1980 [Rocket 150](/wiki/Rocket_150) celebrations, Hornby released a [live steam](/wiki/Live_steam)-powered 3+1⁄2 in (89 mm) gauge locomotive, a model of [Stephenson's Rocket](/wiki/Stephenson%27s_Rocket)[[11]](#cite_note-11)[[12]](#cite_note-12) A major goal was to make real live steam accessible to an indoor domestic environment. The boiler was considerably smaller than the external diameter, surrounded by a thick insulating jacket to prevent burns. It was fuelled by butane gas, from cigarette lighter refills. To provide more torque from the small cylinders, gearing was adeptly hidden between the cranks and the wheels. The track was of asymmetric moulded plastic units, representing the [fishbelly rails](/wiki/Fishbelly_rail) of the period. These could be assembled either way round, to give either curved or straight track.

By 1980, the market was extremely tough and Dunbee-Combex-Marx was liquidated, placing Hornby in [receivership](/wiki/Receivership).

### Hornby Hobbies Limited: 1980–2015
[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Hornby_Railways&action=edit&section=8)]

/wiki/File:Hornby_HST_43087-02.jpgIn 2006 a [Cotswold Rail](/wiki/Cotswold_Rail) [Class 43](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_43_(HST)) HST power car carried a livery advertising Hornby. It has since been repainted.
In 1980, Hornby became Hornby Hobbies and in 1981 a management buyout saw the company back on a sound footing. It went public in 1986.[[1]](#cite_note-hearns-1)

By the early 1990s Hornby again faced competition from newcomers such as [Dapol](/wiki/Dapol) (established 1983) and established foreign manufacturers, including [Lima](/wiki/Lima_(models)) and [Bachmann Industries](/wiki/Bachmann_Industries). Manufacturing was moved to [Guangdong](/wiki/Guangdong) province in China in 1995, completed by 1999, in a cost-cutting exercise.[[13]](#cite_note-13) As part of the process Hornby also bought in some of Dapol's products and also some of the old Airfix moulds[[a]](#cite_note-14) (which had been bought by Dapol as part of the Mainline range from Palitoy in 1985). Train sets based on [Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends](/wiki/Hornby_Thomas_And_Friends) and [Harry Potter](/wiki/Harry_Potter)[[14]](#cite_note-15) (the "[Hogwarts Express](/wiki/Hogwarts_Express)") have been particularly profitable ventures. In September 2003 Hornby released its first [steam-powered](/wiki/Steam_engine) 00 gauge locomotive, a model of the record-breaking [Mallard](/wiki/Mallard_(locomotive)). Several other "[Live Steam](/wiki/Live_Steam)" locomotives have now been produced.

/wiki/File:Hornby_00_scale_model_of_a_Stirling_GNR_Class_J13_(LNER_Class_J52).jpg[GNR Class J13](/wiki/GNR_Class_J13) model of this period
Hornby bought [Lima](/wiki/Lima_(models)), an Italian model railway equipment manufacturer that had previously acquired [Jouef](/wiki/Jouef), a French manufacturer. Some of the ex-Lima models appear in the main Hornby products list. This range is known as [Hornby International](/wiki/Hornby_International). This acquisition also included the [Rivarossi](/wiki/Rivarossi) line of HO-scale products, also originally from Italy, and the Arnold brand of N-scale products. They also took over the Spanish model railway company Electrotren. Electrotren had been the Spanish importer for [Scalextric](/wiki/Scalextric) which was sold in Spain as "Superslot". The takeover was at the request of the Spanish company and was not due to obvious financial problems.[[citation needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)] They have remained independent outside of the Hornby International umbrella.

With competition mainly from [Bachmann Industries](/wiki/Bachmann_Industries), and to a much lesser extent from minor and generally niche players such as the Danish model railway company [Heljan](/wiki/Heljan), [Dapol](/wiki/Dapol), [Vi Trains](/w/index.php?title=Vi_Trains&action=edit&redlink=1) and [Peco](/wiki/Peco), as of 2008 Hornby Railways produced a large range of highly detailed British steam and diesel locomotives, such as the [BR 9F](/wiki/BR_Standard_Class_9F), [LNER Class A4](/wiki/LNER_Class_A4), [SR Merchant Navy](/wiki/SR_Merchant_Navy_Class), [Class 60](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_60), [Class 50](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_50), [Class 31](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_31) and [Class 08](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_08).

In November 2006, Hornby Hobbies acquired [Airfix](/wiki/Airfix) and [Humbrol](/wiki/Humbrol) paints for the sum of £2.6 million.[[15]](#cite_note-16)
The parent company, [Humbrol](/wiki/Humbrol), had gone into administration earlier that year after cashflow problems. Airfix fans had been concerned that it could be the end of the brand, but just as the name Hornby was once a tradename of Meccano, Airfix is now a successful tradename of Hornby.[[citation needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)]

In May 2008, Hornby announced the acquisition of [Corgi Classics Limited](/wiki/Corgi_Classics_Limited), one of the world's oldest makers of collectable die-cast models of trucks, buses, cars and aeroplanes, from [Corgi International Limited](/wiki/Corgi_International_Limited) for £7.5million.[[16]](#cite_note-17)[[17]](#cite_note-18)

In 2009, the Hornby Shop and Visitor Centre was in development. Christmas 2009 saw the launch of the new Hornby Shop at [Margate](/wiki/Margate) in [Kent](/wiki/Kent), with the visitor centre still under construction. July 2010 saw the opening of the Hornby Shop And Visitor Centre.[[18]](#cite_note-19)

### Financial troubles, PAM takeover
[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Hornby_Railways&action=edit&section=9)]

From 2015, Hornby plc began to announce a series of declining financial results. The major reason behind the decline Hornby declared was twofold, with the decline in the number of collecting customers, (older customers dying and not being replaced by younger ones), and a general lack of interest in modelling as a hobby in light of the digitization and advancement of the internet games industry. After the PLC shares dropped by more than 50% in a year, at the 2016 results, Hornby declared that it planned to cut more than half of the toys it made, after discovering that it generated 90% of its profits from only 50% of its range.[[19]](#cite_note-20) In the year to 31 March 2017, revenues fell further to £47.4m from £55.8m, while underlying losses widened to £6.3m from a £5.7m deficit in 2016.[[5]](#cite_note-BBC40371393-5) The financial declines culminated in July 2017, when the largest shareholder Phoenix Asset Management (PAM) agreed to buy 17.6 million Hornby shares for 32.375p from the second largest – and activist/protagonist shareholder – New Pistoia Income (NPI), which gave PAM a 55.2% holding in the company. Under stock exchange rules, this triggered a mandatory takeover offer of Hornby by PAM, at the NPI strike price of 32.375p, valuing Hornby at £27.4million.[[5]](#cite_note-BBC40371393-5)[[20]](#cite_note-21) As a result of the takeover, the chairman of Hornby resigned from the company in August 2017, followed by the Chief Executive in September 2017.[[21]](#cite_note-BBC41223672-22)

In October 2017, PAM announced their new management team who would join the company and steer through the turnaround.[[22]](#cite_note-23) They were Lyndon Davies, former Mettoy employee and owner of Oxford Diecast.[[23]](#cite_note-24) Simon Kohler, ex Hornby marketing manager[[24]](#cite_note-25) and Tim Mulhall, also from Oxford Diecast and credited with knowledge of the International market, having been the former importer for Hornby International brands in the UK.[[25]](#cite_note-26)

The trio proposed a turnaround plan to reengage with the market, make products which were more appealing to customers, clamp down on rising overheads and recover first sales and then move the company back into profitability. The outcomes were not expected to bear fruit for 3–5 years.

The end of year Annual Report for March 2018 revealed how serious the position was for the company, showing further slumps in revenue (down to £35.7m) and a widening pre-tax loss (up to £7.6m).[[26]](#cite_note-27)

The March 2019 end of year report showed progress, having stabilised the business, closed unnecessary offices and returned to their historic home in Margate. Sales grew to £37.8m, losses narrowed to £2.8m[[27]](#cite_note-Annual_Reports-28)

The [COVID-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic) in 2020 was one element credited in a sales growth of 30%, which was announced in the 2019/20 half year results which covered a period to March 2020. Half year sales of £21m (up from £15.9m) and the first profit in 8 years.[[27]](#cite_note-Annual_Reports-28)

In August 2021, it was announced that Hornby had acquired the remaining 51% of LCD Enterprises (who owned Oxford Diecast) for £1.3 million. This followed Hornby's 49% stake in the company, for which they had acquired in 2017.[[28]](#cite_note-29)

In October 2022 Hornby released a range of [TT:120](/wiki/TT_scale#British_TT:120) items. Two train sets are being offered, with four series of locomotives and rolling stock available.[[29]](#cite_note-30)

In November 2024, Hornby announced it had agreed to sell Oxford Diecast Ltd to EKD Enterprises Ltd, a business owned by former chairman and current non-executive director Lyndon Davies and his family for £1.38 million.[[30]](#cite_note-31)

## Collector and enthusiasts' groups
[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Hornby_Railways&action=edit&section=10)]

Pre-1964 Hornby trains have enjoyed a level of adult collector interest since the 1940s. In 1969 the Hornby Railway Collector's Association was founded to cater for this and currently enjoys a membership approaching 3000, producing 10 journals a year, as well as other literature.[[31]](#cite_note-32) Publications on older Hornby and Meccano products are dominated by those published by New Cavendish Books as "The Hornby Companion Series", in particular Chris & Julie Graebe's "The Hornby Gauge 0 System" and Michael Foster's sister volume on Hornby Dublo. Triang-Hornby and later Hornby products are catered for by the [Train Collectors' Society](/w/index.php?title=Train_Collectors_Society&action=edit&redlink=1).

Hornby owns [Humbrol](/wiki/Humbrol) and, through that acquisition, [Airfix](/wiki/Airfix),[[32]](#cite_note-33) and [Corgi Toys](/wiki/Corgi_Toys). It also owns a number of established brands in the model railway market.

Lima was an Italian company that was a popular, affordable supplier of model railway material but market pressures in the mid-1990s led to Lima merging with [Rivarossi](/wiki/Rivarossi), [Arnold](/wiki/Arnold_(models)), and [Jouef](/wiki/Jouef). When these consolidations failed and operations ceased in 2004, Hornby Railways acquired Lima's assets. As of mid 2006, a range of these products has been made available under the Hornby International brand, refitted with NEM couplings and sprung buffers and sockets for [DCC](/wiki/Digital_Command_Control) decoders. Lima also had a popular OO gauge range much like Hornby, which strengthened the case for acquisition.

'Skaledale' is a range of resin buildings and track accessories produced for 00 gauge railways by Hornby Hobbies Ltd. Production began in 2003 when an initial range of only 6 items were distributed into the market place. The interest and demand proved so positive that the range increased the following year to include new domestic style buildings plus the introduction of station and trackside buildings.

Many of the models are similar to those of 'Lyddle End' (a range which followed 'Skaledale'), but these "N" Gauge buildings are produced to a smaller scale of 1:148.

The Skaledale range comprises station buildings, platforms, trackside accessories, shops, houses, churches, monuments and street furniture.

Forbes Outfitters and St. Andrews Church for example, provided the inspiration for their scaled down models, although others are adapted to suit a particular price point or subject. The station and trackside buildings are inspired by actual structures but again in some cases adapted to suit manufacturing constraints. Some of the station pieces were inspired by [Goathland railway station](/wiki/Goathland_railway_station).

Lyddle End is the range of [N scale](/wiki/N_scale) [model railway](/wiki/Rail_transport_modelling) buildings for Hornby Railways. The buildings are created from high quality die cast [resin](/wiki/Resin) and are made to represent the fictional village of Lyddle End, somewhere in England. Most of the buildings are models of [GWR](/wiki/Great_Western_Railway) style buildings made out of red sandstone.

Hornby created these buildings thanks to the success of their 00 gauge buildings,[[citation needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)] which they call Skaledale. Many of the buildings are the same as their Skaledale equivalent, except in different scales, to save the cost of designing a new model. They are generally released about 6 months to a year behind their 00 counterparts. When Hornby announced their 2010 range, Lyddle End was not mentioned, presumably ended.

### Warlord Games Limited
[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Hornby_Railways&action=edit&section=18)]

In July 2023 Hornby acquired a 25% share in [Warlord Games](/wiki/Warlord_Games), a company that produces historical tabletop wargames.[[33]](#cite_note-34)

An attempt to build the world's longest model railway formed the final episode of [James May's Toy Stories](/wiki/James_May%27s_Toy_Stories).
May, who had previously identified the train set as his "absolute favourite",[[34]](#cite_note-35) hoped that a train would run successfully along the length of the [Tarka Trail](/wiki/Tarka_Trail), which is a disused 37-mile (60 km) long railway line in [North Devon](/wiki/North_Devon).[[35]](#cite_note-TarkaProject-36)[[36]](#cite_note-Railway_Telegraph-37)

Hornby was heavily involved, providing the track and the prototype of their OO gauge [British Rail Class 395 Javelin](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_395) train. Simon Kohler, marketing manager of Hornby model railways, said that the train which travels at just 1 mile per hour (1.6 km/h) failed two miles short of Bideford station; but he also told BBC News "Even though the last locomotive gave up the ghost at Instow, we did link the track.[[36]](#cite_note-Railway_Telegraph-37) In April 2011 on the TV series James May's Toy Stories: Revisited, James tried again, this time against the Germans. All the trains reached their destinations and the British team won.[[37]](#cite_note-38)

In 2019 the mini-series James May's Big Trouble in Model Britain was broadcast on BBC Four, which the channel described as, 'A year inside Hornby Hobbies – an iconic British toymaker on the brink of collapse.'[[38]](#cite_note-39)

In 2021, a ten-episode series was produced by Rare TV for the [Yesterday TV channel](/wiki/Yesterday_(TV_channel)) called Hornby: A Model World,[[39]](#cite_note-40)[[40]](#cite_note-41) which went behind the scenes at Hornby and also featured models from Airfix, Scalextric and Corgi within various episodes. A second season of 11 episodes was broadcast in 2023.[[41]](#cite_note-42)[[42]](#cite_note-43)

In 2019 the One:One Collection of real historic engines and rolling stock opened at Hornby's former Margate factory. It had been purchased by [Jeremy Hosking](/wiki/Jeremy_Hosking), with some Hosking-owned rolling stock placed on display.[[43]](#cite_note-44)[[44]](#cite_note-45)[[45]](#cite_note-46)

- [Hornby Virtual Railway](/wiki/Hornby_Virtual_Railway)

- [Hornby Track Master](/wiki/Hornby_Track_Master)

- [^](#cite_ref-14) Airfix had both a 'Ready to Run' range introduced in the mid 1970s sold to Palitoy in 1981 and a scale model kit range from 1957 (which included the former Kitmaster brand in the 1960s) sold to Dapol in 1984

- ^ [a](#cite_ref-hearns_1-0) [b](#cite_ref-hearns_1-1) ["A Brief History of Frank Hornby and the Hornby Brand"](https://www.hearnshobbies.com/blogs/educational/a-brief-history-of-frank-hornby-and-the-hornby-brand). Hearns Hobbies. Australia. 25 August 2020. Retrieved 10 March 2024.

- ^ [a](#cite_ref-AnnualReport2020_2-0) [b](#cite_ref-AnnualReport2020_2-1) [c](#cite_ref-AnnualReport2020_2-2) [d](#cite_ref-AnnualReport2020_2-3) ["Annual Report and Accounts 2020"](https://wp-hornby-2020.s3.eu-west-2.amazonaws.com/media/2020/08/05094828/Hornby-%E2%80%93-Annual-Report-2020-1.pdf) (PDF). UK: Hornby PLC. 16 June 2020. Retrieved 11 April 2021.

- ^ [a](#cite_ref-pam_3-0) [b](#cite_ref-pam_3-1) ["Hornby Plc Transaction"](https://www.phoenixassetmanagement.com/news/17/). Phoenix Asset Management. UK. 17 July 2017. Retrieved 10 March 2024.

- ^ [a](#cite_ref-Brown_4-0) [b](#cite_ref-Brown_4-1) [c](#cite_ref-Brown_4-2) Brown, Kenneth Douglas (January 1996). The British Toy Business: A History since 1700. Hambledon & London. pp. 183–184. [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-85285-136-8](/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85285-136-8).

- ^ [a](#cite_ref-BBC40371393_5-0) [b](#cite_ref-BBC40371393_5-1) [c](#cite_ref-BBC40371393_5-2) [d](#cite_ref-BBC40371393_5-3) ["Hornby says takeover bid undervalues firm"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-40371393). BBC. 22 June 2017. Retrieved 23 November 2017.

- [^](#cite_ref-6) Mulligan, D. ["Hornby Plc Annual Report and Accounts 2017"](http://ir.tools.investis.com/Clients/uk/hornby/Html/PDF/25737_Hornby_AR17.pdf) (PDF). investis.com. Retrieved 20 February 2019.

- [^](#cite_ref-7) Stap-Loos, A.; Stap, J. (1980). Speelgoed van alle tijden (in Dutch). p. 133. [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) [9060440447](/wiki/Special:BookSources/9060440447).

- [^](#cite_ref-8) Sam'sTrains (9 August 2025). [Hornby's First Ever Train (And How It Almost Bankrupted Them)](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FL621v8A-hQ). Retrieved 14 August 2025 – via YouTube.

- [^](#cite_ref-9) [Hornby Railways catalog 1979](https://www.conradantiquario.de/content/katalog/hornby-railways-catalogue-1979.html) in Conrad Antiquario, Retrieved 2024-04-03.

- [^](#cite_ref-10) [Digital system Zero 1 by Hornby Hobbies and Hammant & Morgan](https://www.merg.org.uk/merg_wiki/doku.php?id=glossary:glossary_z) on the website of Model Electronic Railway Group (MERG). Retrieved 8 April 2024.

- [^](#cite_ref-11) ["Hornby G100 Stephenson's Rocket"](https://web.archive.org/web/20091027110036/http://uk.geocities.com/rolywilliams/hornby_rocket.html). Archived from [the original](http://uk.geocities.com/rolywilliams/hornby_rocket.html) on 27 October 2009.

- [^](#cite_ref-12) ["Stephen(son)'s Rocket Homepage"](https://web.archive.org/web/20091231052131/http://www.familie-bennett.de/rocket/). Archived from [the original](http://www.familie-bennett.de/rocket/) on 31 December 2009.

- [^](#cite_ref-13) ["On The Right Track"](https://web.archive.org/web/20081206101026/http://www.cbbc.org/the_review/review_archive/company_profiles/21.html). UK: China-Britain Business Council. 2005. Archived from [the original](http://www.cbbc.org/the_review/review_archive/company_profiles/21.html) on 6 December 2008. Retrieved 10 March 2024.

- [^](#cite_ref-15) ["Potter keeps Hornby profits on track"](https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/2966288.stm). BBC News. 5 June 2005. Retrieved 2 May 2008.

- [^](#cite_ref-16) ["Hornby snaps up Airfix for £2.6m"](https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/6134988.stm). BBC News. 10 November 2006. Retrieved 2 May 2008.

- [^](#cite_ref-17) Potter, Mark (1 May 2008). ["Hornby to buy Corgi"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090513062644/http://uk.reuters.com/article/mergersNews/idUKL0166601520080501). Reuters. Archived from [the original](http://uk.reuters.com/article/mergersNews/idUKL0166601520080501) on 13 May 2009. Retrieved 1 May 2008.

- [^](#cite_ref-18) ["Hornby to buy Corgi in £7.5m deal"](https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7376855.stm). BBC News. 1 May 2008. Retrieved 1 May 2008.

- [^](#cite_ref-19) Oates, John (30 June 2010). ["Hornby opens part-time visitor centre"](https://www.theregister.co.uk/2010/06/30/hornby_visits/). [The Register](/wiki/The_Register). UK. Retrieved 5 May 2019.

- [^](#cite_ref-20) ["Hornby backs chairman in shareholder row"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-39702623). BBC. 25 April 2017. Retrieved 23 November 2017.

- [^](#cite_ref-21) ["Phoenix Asset Management to launch mandatory takeover offer for troubled Hornby"](https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/business/news/phoenix-asset-management-to-launch-mandatory-takeover-offer-for-troubled-hornby-35850169.html). Belfasttelegraph. Retrieved 23 November 2017.

- [^](#cite_ref-BBC41223672_22-0) ["Toymaker Hornby's boss to step down"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-41223672). BBC. 11 September 2017. Retrieved 23 November 2017.

- [^](#cite_ref-23) ["'Hobby expert' to lead Hornby"](http://www.kentonline.co.uk/kent-business/county-news/hobby-model-expert-lyndon-davies-new-chief-executive-hornby-sandwich-kent-133072/). Kent Online. Retrieved 2 July 2018.

- [^](#cite_ref-24) ["BIG INTERVIEW – Lyndon Davies of Oxford"](http://www.gaugemaster.com/articles/product-spotlight/oxford-diecast-Interview.html). gaugemaster.com. Retrieved 2 July 2018.

- [^](#cite_ref-25) ["Simon Kohler leaves Hornby – The LNER Encyclopedia"](https://www.lner.info/forums/viewtopic.php?t=9927). lner.info. Retrieved 2 July 2018.

- [^](#cite_ref-26) ["Herefordshire Company is a real model of success"](https://www.herefordtimes.com/news/4168978.Herefordshire_Company_is_a_real_model_of_success/). Hereford Times. 3 March 2009. Retrieved 2 July 2018.

- [^](#cite_ref-27) ["Hornby losses widen as revenue slumps"](http://www.stockmarketwire.com/article/6017787/Hornby-losses-widen-as-revenue-slumps.html). Stock Market Wire. UK. 19 June 2018. Retrieved 2 July 2018.

- ^ [a](#cite_ref-Annual_Reports_28-0) [b](#cite_ref-Annual_Reports_28-1) ["Annual Reports"](https://www.hornby.plc.uk/annual-reports/). Hornby plc. Retrieved 4 January 2021.

- [^](#cite_ref-29) ["Hornby Plc acquire Oxford Diecast – Collectors Club of Great Britain"](https://www.collectors-club-of-great-britain.co.uk/news/hornby-plc-acquire-oxford-diecast/). 2 August 2021.

- [^](#cite_ref-30) ["Hornby reveals huge range of models for TT:120"](https://web.archive.org/web/20221010192310/https://peco-uk.com/blogs/railway-modeller-news/hornby-reveals-huge-range-of-models-for-tt-120). PECO. Archived from [the original](https://peco-uk.com/blogs/railway-modeller-news/hornby-reveals-huge-range-of-models-for-tt-120) on 10 October 2022. Retrieved 10 October 2022.

- [^](#cite_ref-31) ["Hornby to sell Oxford Diecast"](https://www.world-of-railways.co.uk/news/hornby-to-sell-oxford-diecast). World Of Railways. 5 November 2024. Retrieved 26 December 2025.

- [^](#cite_ref-32) ["Hornby Railway Collectors' Association"](https://www.hrca.net/). UK. Retrieved 20 August 2023.

- [^](#cite_ref-33) Walsh, Fiona (10 November 2006). ["Hornby kits itself out with Airfix"](https://www.theguardian.com/business/2006/nov/10/money2). The Guardian. UK. Retrieved 15 July 2019.

- [^](#cite_ref-34) ["Acquisition and Extension of Loan Facility"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230711163620/https://www.sharesmagazine.co.uk/news/market/LSE20230707122354_4828600/acquisition-and-extension-of-loan-facility). Shares Magazine. UK. 7 July 2023. Archived from [the original](https://www.sharesmagazine.co.uk/news/market/LSE20230707122354_4828600/acquisition-and-extension-of-loan-facility) on 11 July 2023. Retrieved 11 July 2023.

- [^](#cite_ref-35) [James May's Top Toys](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zZ8IjZ3tUas) on [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier))

- [^](#cite_ref-TarkaProject_36-0) ["Recreational Infrastructure: Tarka Trail"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080515170916/http://www.tarka-country.co.uk/tarkaproject/recinfra.html). Tarka Project. Tarka Country. Archived from [the original](http://tarka-country.co.uk/tarkaproject/recinfra.html) on 15 May 2008. Retrieved 31 July 2009.

- ^ [a](#cite_ref-Railway_Telegraph_37-0) [b](#cite_ref-Railway_Telegraph_37-1) ["Vandals disrupt Top Gear presenter James May's model train record bid"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/6088019/Vandals-disrupt-Top-Gear-presenter-James-Mays-model-train-record-bid.html). The Telegraph. London. 25 August 2009.

- [^](#cite_ref-38) ["James May's Great Train Race 2011 – Toy Stories Revisited – video dailymotion"](https://www.dailymotion.com/video/xja5i0). Dailymotion.com. 13 June 2011. Retrieved 17 November 2020.

- [^](#cite_ref-39) ["James May's Big Trouble in Model Britain"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m00034mw). BBC. 2021. Retrieved 26 December 2021.

- [^](#cite_ref-40) ["Hornby: A Model World"](https://yesterday.uktv.co.uk/shows/hornby-a-model-world/). UK: Yesterday Channel. Retrieved 17 December 2021.

- [^](#cite_ref-41) ["UKTV's Yesterday channel steams in with new Hornby series by Rare TV"](https://corporate.uktv.co.uk/news/article/uktv-yesterday-channel-hornby/). UK: UKTV. 6 April 2021. Retrieved 17 December 2021.

- [^](#cite_ref-42) ["Hornby: A Model World is back"](https://uk.hornby.com/community/hornby-model-world). hornby.com. 22 January 2024. Retrieved 22 January 2024.

- [^](#cite_ref-43) [Hornby: A Model World Season 2 – watch episodes streaming online](https://www.justwatch.com/uk/tv-series/hornby-a-model-world/season-2), retrieved 22 January 2024

- [^](#cite_ref-44) ["The One:One Collection: Kent's railway museum in the making"](http://www.theonetoonecollection.co.uk/). Retrieved 10 March 2024.

- [^](#cite_ref-45) [Hornby Margate Open Weekend](https://www.railexpress.co.uk/2866/video-hornby-margate-open-weekend/) [Rail Express](/wiki/Rail_Express) 25 September 2019

- [^](#cite_ref-46) [Haptic wins competition to design Margate train museum](https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/news/haptic-wins-competition-to-design-margate-train-museum/10046440.article) [Architects' Journal](/wiki/Architects%27_Journal) 25 February 2020

- Foster, Michael (1980) Hornby Dublo Trains: 1938–1964: The story of the perfect table railway, Hornby Companion Series, vol. 3, New Cavendish Books, [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-904568-18-0](/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-904568-18-0)

- Hammond, Pat (1998). Tri-ang Hornby. The Story of Rovex. Vol. 2 1965–1971. London: New Cavendish Books. [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-872727-58-1](/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-872727-58-1).

- Hammond, Pat (2005). Hornby Railways. The Story of Rovex. Vol. 3 1972–1996. London: New Cavendish Books. [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-904562-00-0](/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-904562-00-0).

- Hornby PLC (2004) Hornby OO Scale Model Railways: Fiftieth Edition, Product catalogue: R8108, Limited anniversary edition, [EAN](/wiki/European_Article_Number) 501-0-9634810-8-7

- Schneider, Lewis (May 2000) Hornby's made-in-USA trains, Classic Toy Trains, vol. 13, p. 84

- Kohler, Simon (April 2011) – Marketing Manager – Hornby Hobbies Limited

- [Official website](https://uk.hornby.com/) https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q164484#P856

- [Online database of Hornby Railways models 1955–2011](http://www.hornbyguide.com/)

- [Resource of model railway history and references](http://www.lickeyincline.co.uk)

- [DCC Wiki: More info on Hornby's Zero 1 system](http://www.dccwiki.com/DCC_History#Hornby_Zero_1)

- [Hornby Trains](http://www.tcawestern.org/hornby.htm)
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太好了！我找到了一个重要的英国模型制造商。现在让我继续搜索其他英国手办和模型公司：